Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary

He was conceived at Kampung Hutan Keriang in Alor Setar, Kedah in 1951. It was nine years after the fact that his mom, Sharifah Rokiah, stuffed him off to remain with his British fighter uncle in Johor Bahru. He came back to Alor Setar in 1966, proceeded with his Form Three examinations at St Michael’s Secondary School, and assisting with his father’s steers exchanging business. He dropped out of school before finishing Form Five, wandered into meat exchanging after his dad considered it daily when the cows business was seriously influenced by the foot and mouth disease.From there, he went into rice exchanging, the transportation business, article of clothing contract producing (for JCPenny and Kmart), property advancement and a large group of different organizations. Also, he didn't stand by to turn into a rich man to impart his riches to the heartbreaking. He began giving when he was all the while battling as a rice broker. His mom had encouraged him to add to poor pe ople, paying little mind to race or religion. So he made game plans for half of his pay of RM1,500 then to be given to 15 required families in his village.It is a training that proceeds till this day, with poor families getting RM50 each consistently. He has additionally been supporting somewhere in the range of 50 explorers to play out their Haj consistently since 1990s. Noble cause is his all-devouring energy. It has been the foundation of his business world from the beginning. â€Å"Wealth needs to circle. At the point when you bring in cash, you need to part with it. â€Å"My mother trained us nothing is yours until you have parted with it with everything that is in you in the expectation it will make someone’s life easier.†As far as Syed Mokhtar is concerned, he is only the steward of riches that is intended to be spent in the administration of humankind. In 2007, the May 20 version of the World Business named Syed Mokhtar as one of the Top 20 â€Å"Progressive Asians†, refering to him as one â€Å"who has no enthusiasm for individual magnification. † In 2008, Malaysia respected him as Tokoh Ma’al Hijrah 1429H or Man of the year 2008 in acknowledgment of his commitments to the nation. That year, he was perceived as one of the main humanitarians in Asia by Forbes.The Most Fearful 70 minutes in Syed Mokhtar's life Assalamualaikum and hello there! Today I might want to disclose to you a scene of Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al Bukhary's life. Expectation you will appreciate it! It was the most startling 70 minutes for Syed Mokhtar when he met Dr Mahathir, who was a Malaysian Prime Minister around then. The gathering hung on January 16, 1997 which has gone on for 70 minutes has become an entirely exceptional memory in his life. At the point when he meet Dr Mahathir , Syed Mokhtar has been dealt with unfriendly.Dr Mahathir didn't grin when he welcomed him. Syed Mokhtar felt apprehensive when he sees the genuine essence of Dr Mahathi r. Dr Mahathir didn't request that he seat. So he chose to sit and introduce all the reports he had arranged on its business at Kedah even without being inquired. Following 70 minutes passed Dr Mahathir still didn't express even a word. Syed Mokhtar chose to leave the entirety of his archives and leave Dr. Mahathir’s room. This rate has become the most unnerving 70 minutes for Syed Mokhtar and will be recollected forever.However, the dread was in the long run paid off in light of the fact that he has effectively executed ventures that he introduced to Dr Mahathir. I think perhaps Dr Mahathir has his own purpose behind rewarding Syed Mokhtar like that. In any case, on the off chance that I was him I may have blacked out before Dr Mahathir. That was so nerve-recking, I can let you know. 8 fascinating realities about Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al-Bukhary 1) He despite everything driving an old models of Proton Perdana that he bought before he turned into the proprietor of Proton Compa ny itself (page viii) 2) He is an exceptionally nostalgic person.His first office at Teluk Wanjah, Alor Setar is as yet saved in its unique condition, including the first furniture that has been utilized since 1975, just as the most punctual rice trucks, vehicles and scales possessed rice organization. Everything is as yet kept up until today. 3) Syed Mokhtar Albukhary will drive back to Alor Setar every month to visit his mom, Sharifah Rokiah, despite the fact that he is more than equipped for utilizing private plane , or possibly utilize an individual driver (page viii) 4) He likewise has never been an individual from any restrictive club as the predominance of any fruitful corporate figure.(page 3) dislike to stay in bed cooled room, yet in the wake of getting hitched, he settled on this. (page187) 6) Every single year he will go to Mecca to play out the Umrah. (page 171) 7) He likewise supported 50 poor people for journey each and every year. (page 72) 8) He is likewise not a su premacist individual. He is rehearsing of giving piece of his salary to poor families, paying little heed to their race. (page 119) Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Albukhary, is notable as a â€Å"Philanthropist Millionaire†. Conceived in 1951 in Alor Setar, Kedah, from a family ofHadhramawt, Yemen cause, Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar and his seven kin had a basic life when they were youthful. Because of difficulty throughout everyday life, he just oversaw go to class until Form Five so as to offer path to his different kin to encourage their examinations. His example of overcoming adversity in business started by helping his folks in cows business around 1960-an. In any case, this didn't keep going long because of the episode of malady which hit their domesticated animals. Consequently, Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar showed other drive by applying for MARA’s help to begin a lorry business in the 1970s.The lorry organization which is known as Syarikat Kenderaan (Sentosa Vehicle Company) presently c laims in excess of 40 lorries. Know as a man with a dream, his endeavors didn't stop by then. In 1974, Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar purchased his first shop house under the recruit buy concurrence with Urban Development Authority of Malaysia (UDA). The following year, he extended his business realm by building up Shah Company, known as a rice provider to FELDA, MARA Senama, Pernas Edar and Sergam Sdn Bhd in the wake of having prevailing with regards to acquiring the rice exchanging permit from Lembaga Padi Negara or BERNAS.Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar depicted his accomplishment in business was the result of government’s activity in executing the New Economy Policy (NEP). From that point forward, Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar’s business kept on growing quickly until he was granted as one of the most extravagant Bumiputera corporate figure in Malaysia, got acknowledgment from Malaysian Business as the seventh most extravagant man in Malaysia in 2005 and as of late named as the fiftieth most ext ravagant man by Forbes in 2013.This Malaysian head honcho has extended his business domain at a greater scale by possessing a controlling enthusiasm for monster organizations in Malaysia, for example, MMC Corporation Berhad, Tanjung Pelepas Port, BERNAS, Malakoff Berhad, Johor Port Berhad, to give some examples. Known as a liberal figure with a wonderful mankind, he set up the Islamic Art Museum, Al-Bukhary Foundation, Al-Bukhary International University just as Al-Bukhary Complex.Besides that, he was additionally capable in the redesigns of the National Mosque and patrons the less lucky Malaysians to play out their Hajj. Later, this tycoon with a major heart has fabricated a few mosques in certain areas in Negeri Sembilan, aside from Alor Setar, Senai Airport, Johor and furthermore at Jalan Pudu. As a â€Å"Philanthropist Millionaire†, a decent worth which has been imparted by his folks when he was youthful, Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar is a modest man and never acts tightfisted wit h the information he has also asâ his formula of achievement in business.Taken from Syed Mokhtar Albukhary: A Biography by Premilla Mohanlall, he once stated, â€Å"My mother instructed us that we don't have anything until we give what we have truly, with the expectation that it will make different people’s lives better. † It is evident that modesty is his top need when he stated, â€Å"A exercise to me is that we should consistently recollect our root, where we originate from and stay humble when we are honored with favorable luck. Else, we may fall. †

Diversity in Colleges Essay example -- Race Sex Diversity

Conventional Diversity At UC-Berkeley, the course portrayal for Legislative issues and Poetics (Fall Course 2002) expressed that preservationist scholars are urged to look for different segments. (SAF 1). Despite the fact that the educator later apologized for the depiction, this is the kind of support preservationist disapproved of understudies are welcomed with commonly during their school understanding. It is said that in class, understudies are instructed that their nation - and Western culture when all is said in done - is spoiled by bigotry, sexism, and abuse (Stearn 2). Outside class, understudies are constrained into awareness raising activities that increase strains and support radical weight gatherings (Stearn 2). For instance, at Brown University, a sorted out alliance of fifteen ethnic and political understudy bunches took 4,000 duplicates of the Brown Daily Herald in March 2002 (SAF 2). The robbery was directed as reprisal for the paper's choice to print an enemies of reparations [for slavery] promotion wrote by David Horowitz, a notable liberal turned moderate political extremist (2). The chief of Brown's Afro-American investigations program safeguarded the alliance's activity, asserting, If something is free, you can take the same number of duplicates as you like. This is definitely not a free discourse issue. It is a despise discourse issue. (SAF 2). Horowitz's enemy of reparation remarks are entitled: 10 Reasons Why Reparations For Blacks Are A Bad Idea For Blacks And Racist, Too. (Horowitz, 10 Reasons). While Horowitz's title may cause some tension for reparation supporters, it is, basically, an individual conclusion. In any case, Horowitz knew very well that the feeling distributed with this article would incite some genuine backfire, and all chances ought to be put on his depending on the blistering rejoinders to open a wide d... .... Horowitz, David. In Defense of Intellectual Diversity. Chronicle.com. 13 February 2004: 5 pp. Web. On the web. Direct page connect. . Gotten to 24 April 2004. Horowitz, David and Lehrer, Eli. Political Bias in the Administrations and Faculties of 32 Elite Schools and Universities. April 2003: 4 pp. On the web. Web. Direct page interface. . Gotten to 10 May 2004. Stearn, Peter. Extending the Agenda of Cultural Research. 2 May 2003: 5 pp. On the web membership as it were. . Gotten to 14 May 2004. Understudies for Academic Freedom Website (SAF). Predisposition Incidents on Campus. 12 May 2004: 14 pp. Studentsforacademicfreedom.org. Web. On the web. . Gotten to 14 May 2004. Assorted variety in Colleges Essay model - Race Sex Diversity Conventional Diversity At UC-Berkeley, the course portrayal for Governmental issues and Poetics (Fall Course 2002) expressed that moderate masterminds are urged to look for different areas. (SAF 1). In spite of the fact that the teacher later apologized for the depiction, this is the kind of support moderate disapproved of understudies are welcomed with commonly during their school understanding. It is said that in class, understudies are instructed that their nation - and Western culture by and large - is corrupted by bigotry, sexism, and persecution (Stearn 2). Outside class, understudies are constrained into awareness raising activities that elevate strains and support radical weight gatherings (Stearn 2). For instance, at Brown University, a sorted out alliance of fifteen ethnic and political understudy bunches took 4,000 duplicates of the Brown Daily Herald in March 2002 (SAF 2). The burglary was directed as revenge for the paper's choice to print an enemies of reparations [for slavery] advertisement wrote by David Horowitz, a notable liberal turned traditionalist political dissident (2). The chief of Brown's Afro-American examinations program shielded the alliance's activity, guaranteeing, If something is free, you can take the same number of duplicates as you like. This is certifiably not a free discourse issue. It is a detest discourse issue. (SAF 2). Horowitz's enemy of reparation remarks are entitled: 10 Reasons Why Reparations For Blacks Are A Bad Idea For Blacks And Racist, Too. (Horowitz, 10 Reasons). While Horowitz's title may cause some uneasiness for reparation supporters, it is, basically, an individual supposition. In any case, Horowitz knew very well that the feeling distributed with this exposition would incite some genuine kickback, and all chances ought to be set on his depending on the blistering rejoinders to open a wide d... .... Horowitz, David. In Defense of Intellectual Diversity. Chronicle.com. 13 February 2004: 5 pp. Web. On the web. Direct page interface. . Gotten to 24 April 2004. Horowitz, David and Lehrer, Eli. Political Bias in the Administrations and Faculties of 32 Elite Schools and Universities. April 2003: 4 pp. On the web. Web. Direct page interface. . Gotten to 10 May 2004. Stearn, Peter. Growing the Agenda of Cultural Research. 2 May 2003: 5 pp. On the web membership as it were. . Gotten to 14 May 2004. Understudies for Academic Freedom Website (SAF). Predisposition Incidents on Campus. 12 May 2004: 14 pp. Studentsforacademicfreedom.org. Web. On the web. . Gotten to 14 May 2004.

Ikea Selling Strategy Free Essays

1. Official Summary: 2. 1. We will compose a custom exposition test on Ikea Selling Strategy or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now IKEA Objectives: * IKEA produces modest and reasonable items for the clients. * The organization needs better life for the individuals who can't manage the cost of costly items. * IKEA consistently assists with creating right item for the correct shopper. * IKEA consistently attempts to sell their items at low costs. * The company’s worldwide turns of events and its persistent duty is to positively affect individuals and the earth. 2. 2. IKEA Vision: The Vision is to make a superior regular daily existence for the numerous individuals. They make this conceivable by offering a wide scope of very much structured home outfitting items at costs so low that whatever number individuals as could reasonably be expected will have the option to manage the cost of them. 2. 3. IKEA Mission: The mission is to offer a wide scope of home outfitting things of good plan and capacity, incredible quality and sturdiness, at costs so low that most of individuals can bear to get them (IKEA 1994). The organization focuses on the client who is searching for esteem and is happy to do a tad of work serving them-selves, shipping the things home and collecting the furniture at a superior cost. The run of the mill Ikea client is youthful low to center pay family. 2. Organization Summary: 3. 4. Organization Background: IKEA is a secretly held, global home items retailer that sells level pack furniture, embellishments, and restroom and kitchen things in their retail locations around the globe. The organization, which spearheaded level pack structure furniture at reasonable costs, is presently the world’s biggest furniture retailer. IKEA was established in 1943 by 17-year-old Ingvar Kamprad in Sweden and it is possessed by a Dutch enrolled establishment constrained by the Kamprad family. The organization which was begun in Smaland, Sweden, appropriates its items through its retail outlets. As of August 2009, the chain has 301 stores in 37 nations, the greater part of them in Europe, North America, Asia and Australia. IKEA originator Ingvar Kamprad was conceived and experienced childhood with the homestead Elmtaryd, area of Agunnaryd in Smaland, in the south of Sweden. As a little youngster Ingvar Kamprad realized that he needed to build up a business. Different occasions during his childhood gave him a solid drive to make his own assets and to be free. In 1943 The Ikea was conceived, at first a mail-request business selling pencils, postcards, and other product. The name gets from the underlying letters of Ingvar Kamprad and of Elmtaryd and Agunnaryd. Progressively over in 1948 Furniture fabricating was an extra business for some ranchers in Smaland. So Ingvar Kamprad likewise presented Furniture in the IKEA business as a supplement to the general product. This was a triumph and Ingvar Kamprad begins investigating creative arrangements, for example, furniture plan, self-get together and publicizing and by 1951 The principal yearly IKEA furniture list was distributed in Sweden. Ikea developed and after two years by 1953 they opened a showroom in Almhult. Here the clients could see and experience the nature of the items before requesting them and Ingvar could meet clients face to face and gain from them. 3. 5. Organization Location and Facilities: The organization IKEA has a few store over numerous spots on the planet as the accompanying a. Europe: Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Greece, France. Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Cyprus, Hungary Netherlands, Norway, Austria, Russia, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Switzerland, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden, Turkey, and United Kingdom b. North America: Canada and United States. c. Center East: Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. d. Asia Pacific: Australia, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, Singapore, and Thailand. The offices that could be found in the majority of IKEA stores is the equivalent, anyway they are referenced in the IKEA Ireland as the accompanying: a. Showroom: IKEA stores are tremendous home displays. Loosen up on a bed, perceive what number of individuals you can fit on a couch, or let your youngsters pick furniture for their rooms. Our room settings are assembled totally from IKEA items, and will give you moving thoughts for outfitting, lighting and improving your home. . Market corridor: The market lobby is exactly what it seems like: a wide range of authority shops assembled. You’ll discover everything from carpets to pots to picture edges and tickers. You’ll additionally observe a wide range of home lighting, all that you requirement for your kitchen, and innumerable one of a kind endowments you can provide for others †or ruin yourself with. c. IKEA Restaurant: At the IKEA café you can enjoy a reprieve from the difficult work of shopping. You can even beginning your day at the IKEA café with breakfast before the store opens. Or on the other hand why not have espresso and cake toward the evening! In the eatery you’ll find solid Swedish and nearby dishes every day made utilizing top notch new produce. You can utilize our infant chairs and infant changing offices for the little ones. And keeping in mind that the adults rest a couple of moments after lunch, the children can have a fabulous time in the children’s play zone. d. IKEA for kids: IKEA directed play region and assembly hall, and shop in harmony. Along these lines, everyone’s upbeat. Or on the other hand in the event that you need them to help settle on outfitting choices, carriages are accessible at the passageway. e. Care and taking care of children: IKEA gives clean taking care of and changing offices for little youngsters. Furthermore, our café has an uncommon menu only for the children. f. Streetcars for everybody: There are a lot of trucks accessible to assist you with taking your buys to your vehicle. Or on the other hand you can carry your vehicle to your buys by pulling up to our client stacking sound. g. The trade framework: Almost any way you need to pay approves of us. You can generally pay with money or a significant of charge card, yet other installment techniques are typically additionally accessible. They change from store to store, so please check with your nearby IKEA store to discover more. 3. Item and Services of IKEA: 4. 6. Items Description: IKEA items are recognized by single word names. A large portion of the names are Scandinavian in beginning. In spite of the fact that there are some striking exemptions, most item names depend on an uncommon naming framework created by * Upholstered furniture, end tables, rattan furniture, shelves, media stockpiling, door handles: Swedish spot names (for instance: Klippan) * Beds, closets, lobby furniture: Norwegian spot names * Dining tables and seats: Finnish spot names * Bookcase ranges: Occupations * Bathroom articles: Scandinavian lakes, streams and coves * Kitchens: syntactic terms, now and again additionally different names * Chairs, work areas: men’s names Fabrics, blinds: women’s names * Garden furniture: Swedish islands * Carpets: Danish spot names * Lighting: terms from music, science, meteorology, measures, loads, seasons, months, days, pontoons, nautical terms * Bed material, bed blankets, pads/pads: blossoms, plants, valuable stones * Children’s things: warm blooded animals, winged animals, modif iers * Curtain adornments: numerical and geometrical terms * Kitchen utensils: outside words, flavors, herbs, fish, mushrooms, natural products or berries, practical portrayals * Boxes, divider design, pictures and edges, timekeepers: conversational articulations, 4. . Serious Comparison: Retailers have commonly been delayed to create multilingual Web destinations just on the grounds that they’ve been delayed to grow outside of their local markets. As indicated by a Deloitte investigation of the world’s top 250 retailers, 104 retailers have no universal activities by any means, however IKEA had a major advantage over its rivals since it assembled its business through store development as well as through an enormously famous mail-request inventory. 4. 8. Gracefully and Demand Details: We will discuss the market powers for the worldwide market as opposed to discussing Malaysian market as it were. Flexibly organizer †request ; need Global gracefully chain the executives of Children’s lighting items from IKEA providers to IKEA stores around the world, overseeing deals conjecture, scope quantification, renewal and data stream. Answerable for the worldwide flexibly to 350 IKEA stores worldwide inside a business region of Children’s IKEA. The Increased accessibility at the store from 85% to 99% inside a year. Decreased the stock a long time from 7 weeks to 3 weeks inside a half year. Common information on flexibly chain the executives with collaborators in China and Lithuania. 2005 Logistics ; Operations, IKEA Trading Southeast Asia Thailand Managed an assortment of fitness advancement programs in zones of coordinations and tasks for buyer, professional, gracefully organizer, material chief and business improvement administrators. Notwithstanding be answerable for the company’s Center of Competence in flexibly chain the board, executed an examination prog ram about skill the executives in a culturally diverse association that covers Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. 150 IKEA Trading Southeast Asia colleagues have gone to flexibly chain the board program. Licentiate proposition has been composed and it raised the thoughtfulness regarding the significance of all out streamlining inside IKEA pipelines both in merchandise and data streams. 4. 9. Innovation Needs: After riding the market for data we made sense of that the instruments in the business are comparable for all the brands. Devices are the core of the carpentry calling. The best spot to begin is with fundamental hand apparatuses. An estimating tape, mix ruler and level, pencils, hammer; saws, a carpentry square and hand drill are on the whole economical pieces of a carpentry set. Etches, planes and sanding squares are additionally significant in light of the fact that furniture needs a fine, smooth completion, liberated from splinters and sharp corners. A pack of brushes, fabrics and wipes are required for the stain and lacquering steps. So as to add cushioning or upholstery to the furnishings, the craftsman will require a lot of cinches in shifted sizes and a staple firearm. Time the initial barely any ventures finished in

How to Write a Dissertation That Will Stand Out

How to Write a Dissertation That Will Stand OutDissertation writing is very similar to the writing process in a college or university class. In fact, you can write a dissertation in the same way. While in the university classroom, you will be getting the advice of your professors about the topics that you need to cover in your writing.Dissertation writing also differs from academic writing in that it will be the topic for which you are most interested. In fact, the assignment for your dissertation will also be decided by the professors. This implies that there is more work involved in the process. If you are at a junior level in an education institution, you will likely have to look into your own academic expertise for the topic. In case you are a first-year student, your academic expertise will be considered to be your only advantage for this job.Topic writing involves several levels of concern. For example, you may need to write an essay that discusses a specific part of history in detail. This is a completely different style of writing than that of a more generalized essay that explains a theme or a point of view.Most dissertation writing jobs involve some type of assistance with research. You will need to acquire the necessary tools or sources to support the information that you have provided in your dissertation. Some people may have some natural ability for research, while others may find that their natural abilities lie elsewhere. It may not be too difficult to get help with researching, but you may want to check with the head of the department and the assistant director in particular to determine if this will be necessary.The subject matter of your dissertation is important to think about. The topic is the main subject of your writing. For example, a military history may require that you examine the conflict between American and European soldiers. As you might expect, this is a broad topic that can bring you plenty of materials on the subject.Other subj ects within your dissertation include military matters, politics, economics, and even economics. Each of these subjects may require entirely different types of literature or materials for your dissertation. Economics, for example, requires more logic, whereas politics may require more the survey of trends and data to support your thesis. However, all of these fields and more have their own requirements for materials. In this regard, you should always try to think about the unique requirements of each of the topics that you intend to include in your dissertation.You can find plenty of helpful articles on the internet about how to write an article. You can also find plenty of resources for assistance as well. You will find many college and university websites that can provide you with writing resources. These can include information about how to write a college or university essay. If you do decide to turn to freelance writing for your dissertation, make sure that you check out the we bsite for their terms of service before doing so.

How to Find Statistics and Data for Your Report

The Political Basis of the American Revolution Essay

The political basis of the American Revolution relied on three major congresses formed prior and during the revolution. These congresses were the Stamp Act Congress, the First Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress. The main reason the colonists revolted against the British was in response to the Stamp Act. The Stamp Act was a tax stamp which appeared on every newspaper, legal document, on every customs and shipping document, and on other documents such as tavern licenses and college diplomas. The tax largely affected the middle and lower classes. The act was passed by Parliament on May 22, 1765, but was not going to go into effect until November 1st of that year. This time period of six months gave†¦show more content†¦The congress proposed that without consent by the colonists or their representatives in Parliament, Britain could not impose taxes. Unfortunately, since the congress only met a few weeks before the act was to be passed, the appeals wou ld not be acted upon by Britain or its Parliament therefore making the gathering useless. However, before the congress met, the colonists had already decided that the act would not be followed even if they had to resort to violence. Beginning August 14, 1765, mobs in all of the colonies began to â€Å"relieve† the stamp distributors of their position, hence by November 1st there were no distributors to enforce the act. Between the time of the Stamp Act and the Declaration of Independence, Britain passed many more taxes which became known as the Intolerable Acts. The Intolerable Acts were directed to the American colonists and were mostly taxes on all imported goods from Britain. Britain also began to send British troops over to help enforce the acts and taxes passed by Parliament. By 1775, all the colonies were boycotting British goods and delegates from all over the North American colonies began to form the First Continental Congress in 1774. On September 5, 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. Some of the delegates chosen to attendShow MoreRelatedThe Meaning Of Revolution By Hannah Arendt Summary1046 Words   |  5 PagesHannah Arendt’s chapter titled â€Å"The Meaning of Revolution† is used as a means to describe the origins and basis of modern revolution and how the social question impacted its meaning into modern times. She first addresses existing revolutions as ones that attempt to overthrow a tyrannical power such as a king or a Machiavellian prince who refuses to distribute wealth amongst his people. Thus, she finds that people in pre-modern times revolted against authority because of their lack of wealth. 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Analysis of Contemporary Society -Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Questions: 1.Critically discuss how globalisation has reconfigured contemporary Australian society. 2.Provide a basic definition of SCOT and then critically discuss how this concept can be used to study the meanings and social interpretations acquired by a specific everyday artefact. 3.Using the concept of interconnectedness critically discuss why we as individuals find it difficult to reduce our ecological footprint in our daily lives 4.Critically discuss why deviant underconformity and deviant overconformity behaviour is still accepted in contemporary Australian society. Answers: 1.Globalisation is related to the highly increase in the flow of communication, people, information and capital between different nations. The concept of globalisation is mainly related to the world which is interdependent and interconnected. The process which is related to the increase in the interconnection between different societies can also be termed as globalisation. The increase in the flow of different commodities between countries is another major effect of globalisation. Advances in the technology, abandonment of trade routes by land and the rise of the global capitalism are major changes caused by globalisation (Arvanitakis, 2016). Globalisation also causes an exchange of culture between different countries as the flow of people increases. There are many advantages that of globalisation and the connection that is formed between countries. Cosmopolitanism which refers to the richer culture and increase in the diversity of nations is the major advantage of globalisation. The world has become a much smaller place as the citizens of the different countries are connected with each other. Free trade is another major effect that is caused by globalisation in the countries. This factor helps in the exchange of goods between the various countries and the living standards of the people also become higher. The process of globalisation has negative effect on the nations as well. The exploitation of the developing nations with the help of free trade is a major disadvantage of globalisation (Arvanitakis, 2016). The decline of many countries have been caused due to globalisation and the rise that has happened in the number of multi-national organizations. The decline of nations can cause the loss of heritage and culture as well. The major changes that have occurred in the world due to social movements caused as a result of globalisation are, suffering of women, class problems, aboriginal equality, anti-war, gay rights, child labour. Globalisation also has many envi ronmental effects of the countries which have gone through this process. The economic growth of Australia has been affected by the globalisation (Arvanitakis, 2016). Australia had opened up its economy to the foreign investment and privatization had taken place on a large scale. The quality of life in Australia has increased after globalisation has occurred in the country. Globalisation has provided huge access to the foreign organizations and the investors so that they can conduct business in the country in a free manner and innovation can also be facilitated. The end of the law of protectionism has helped in making Australia a winner in the process of globalisation (Arvanitakis, 2016). 2.Social Construction of technology theory or SCOT is a concept that is related to the argument that human action is not determined by technology, rather technology is shaped by human action. The way by which technology is used cannot be totally understood without trying to understand the technology which is embedded in the social context. SCOT is mainly response that is provided to technological determinism and it is sometimes also called technological constructivism. SCOT mainly consists of those people who try to understand the main reasons related to rejection or the acceptance of the technology related to the social world (Arvanitakis, 2016). The explanation of the success related to a technology is sometimes not enough and the researchers need to analyse deeply that what are the criteria upon which the best technology is being defined. The researchers need to question the way by which the technology is defined. SCOT can just not be said as theory, it is mainly a methodology. Th e principles and steps related to the analysis of the failures and success of technology are formalized by SCOT. The theory of SCOT was introduced in the year 1984 by Pinch and Bijker. The problems and their relevant solutions are characterised with the help of different innovations that are constructed by stakeholders (Arvanitakis, 2016). SCOT mainly views the rise and development of technology as a process which is interactive in nature. SCOT can also be defined as the most interactive sociotechnical process that helps in the shaping of all the forms of technology. The sociology related to the technology and science are treated in a different manner in case of SCOT. The perspective of knowledge to be held as a social construction is mainly related to the advancement of technology in the modern world. The progress and advancement of science is related to the social forces which include, political, economic and psychological influences as well. Example of SCOT Bakelite The example of plastic Bakelite can be used to depict the ways by which the social forces can shape technology. Bakelite started as an artificial substitute of varnish in the early days of its invention. The product did not achieve success in the market and then the accidental dumping related to the different materials proved that it can be moulded in different ways. The innovation of this component led to the use of plastic for many other purposes which was not predicted by the company in the beginning. 3.Ecological footprint is related to the measure of load that is provided by a certain population on the nature. This mainly represents the area of land that is necessary so that the current level of the consumption of resource and the discharge by the population can be sustained. The demand that is placed by humans on the ecosystems of the Earth can be defined as ecological footprint. The Earth possesses a particular ecological capacity which helps in the regeneration and thereby to keep providing services and raw materials by recycling air, absorbing waste and cleaning soil. The ecological burden that is placed by humans can be measured against the natural capacity of Earth. If the overall burden of humanity is higher than the amount the Earth can absorb, then the ecological footprint of humans on the Earth is greater than 1. The different inhabitants of the Earth have different levels of ecological footprint and if the total ecological footprint is greater than 1, then it depicts that the ecological burden is being overshot (Arvanitakis, 2016). Interconnectedness is related to the process by which the parts of a particular system are connected with each other. The changes that occur in some part of the system can negatively affect the other parts. This process holds true for both the nature and humans as well. The humans are connected in many ways to the natural environment and the Earth as a whole. The different parts of nature are equally connected with each other. The concept of interconnection applies for the degradation of the environment or any type of natural disasters as well. Interconnectedness also includes the concept of interdependence. The way by which the different parts of a system are strongly united is related to the concept of interdependence. Humans are dependent on the various other species that are present in the nature and they receive their food from the animals and plants. It can be said that all the parts of the nature are connected and dependent on each other. The degradation occurring in some part s will have immense effect on all the other parts as the entire ecosystem is affected. The most difficult task for the human species is to adjust to the nature and trying to control their ecological footprints. For example, the over usage of land by humans has led to the cutting down of trees and this has resulted in soil erosion and many other problems (Arvanitakis, 2016). 4.Sports is considered as a social constructed activity which is mainly supposed to enforce many number of normative traits. The key terms related to sport can be deviance, under conformity, over conformity, sexuality and homophobia. Deviance is related to sports in such a way so that it is viewed as a way by which deviant behaviour can be reduced. The idolisation of some of the sportsmen is also related to this factor. Under conformity in sports is related to the rejection of the various social norms that are related to the particular sport. The different activities include, use of drugs, which consists of both illegal and legal usage, example Lance Armstrong. Unsanctioned violence is another major factor related to under conformity in sports, example, Australian Swimming Team London Olympics. The abuse and sexual assault related any type of sport, example, Rugby League Players. Over conformity or over acceptance is another behaviour related to sports. The game is above everything else, for example extreme adherence (Arvanitakis, 2016). The distinction offered through sport is another factor of over conformity. Injury and pain is a part of the game and accepting the social norms without any question. Gender is another major factor that affects sports in all way. The factors related to gender problem that affect sports are, sexuality, homophobic, social construction of which gender plays which sport and hegemonic masculinity. Deviant over conformity is related to the vulnerability of the athletes to the demands that are made by his group which is combined with the desire related to the reaffirmation or gain of the group membership which is a major factor in this case. Deviant under conformity is related to the actions that are taken by the sportsperson by ignoring the norms related to sports. Violence has been a major part of the Australian sports community related to sport ethic. The violence is related to the insecurities that the players have in the sports where high performance is required. The expressions that are related to violence are different in the cases of different genders. The physicality of the sportsmen is also important in creating the excitement and drama and special bonds between the female and the male athletes. Under conformity is also exhibited by the Australian players related to different sports where they tend to reject the rules and involve in cheating (Arvanitakis, 2016). The illegal drug addiction of the players is also a negative behaviour that is depicted by the Australian players in some situations. Reference Arvanitakis, James.Sociologic: Analysing Everyday Life and Culture. 2016.

Arguing Both Sides- Gay Marriage free essay sample

The issue of gay marriage stirs up controversy, which makes it a national problem. Although some states, and many people, now accept gay marriage, gays still face many obstacles. Now that gay marriage Is allowed, the fight to legalize gay adoption grows. Even though the Idea of gay couples has become more accepted across the united States, gays adopting children remains a major controversial Issue. Occurring since American colonial times, adoption provides children for childless couples. Back then, adoptive parents were protected from dealing with infertility and acing the differences between being a parent through adoption versus being a parent by birth. Objections to adoption did not exist during colonial times as long as adoptive parents provided care and support for the child. Therefore, parents who properly care for adopted children were assured no judgment or speculation would rise. The primary objection to gay adoption today is that it goes against nature, which says the primary caregivers for children should be the man and woman who created the child. We will write a custom essay sample on Arguing Both Sides- Gay Marriage or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In cases where a child constantly switches to dfferent foster homes as pposed to a stable home run by a gay Individual or couple, a caring person must choose the latter. The only method of conception for human beings requires Involvement of both a male and a female. Gays and Infertile heterosexual couples turn to child adoption when wanting to start a family. Opposers of gay adoption believe that marriage without the potential to reproduce is a sin. Discriminants think that if you cannot reproduce naturally, you are not meant to have children. People against gays refer to the bible which says a man will be united to his wife. However, God created gays as well and anti-discrimination laws declare that gays and heterosexuals should be treated equally. As stated in the Declaration of Independence, all men are created equal. Adoption means to legally bring someone into your family and raise them like you would your own child. Adopting a child involves the creation of a parent-child relationship between individuals who are not naturally related. A childs best interests are the most Important factors considered during adoption. The type of person allowed to adopt children, however, continues to cause heated debates. In the essay Counterpoint: In Defense of Gay and Lesbian Parents, John Pearson provides support for gay couples wanting to be parents. Pearson is a novelist who was educated at Kings College School. The essay Point: Children Suffer with Same-Sex Couples, written by Lynn-nore Chittom and co-written by Geraldine Wagner, opposes what Pearson supports about gay adoption. Chittom is a self-employed freelance writer. Wagner is a graduate of the State university of New York at Fredonia, teaching sociology and technical and professional writing. Pearson states, A huge number of Americans that might make excellent parents are being enied the legal right to adopt (Pearson, par. 5). There are many different types of families In the United States. Some examples are as follows: step families, single parent families, and adoptive families and so on. Therefore, Pearson wonders why heterosexual families and Individuals should be thought to be able to provide better care and surroundings for a child than a gay or lesbian couple. Nearly 520,000 children await adoption in foster care, but each year only 50,000 find permanent adoption by gays could potentially raise the number of children who find a home. When making a decision on adoption, Pearson believes aspects like a familys lifestyle and ability to care for a child should be more important than the sexual preference of who wants to adopt the child (Pearson, par. ). On the flip side of the argument, Chittom talks about how children are best reared in environments with both a mother and a father, referring to the Fifth Amendment which clearly states Honor your father and your mother. (Chittom, par. 4). However, many gay couples form more stable relationships than heterosexual couples. Pearson opposes Chittom with he idea gays may be even better at child-rearing because gays are n ot raising a child conceived on accident, but rather one fought to obtain. Opposers of gay marriage strongly believe gay partners cannot care for a child as well as heterosexual partners. Meanwhile, activists strongly believe gay partners are able to care for a child Just as well, or even better than heterosexual partners. Whereas, sociologists and psychologists question whether or not children exposed to only one gender will be raised with a balanced understanding of gender roles and personal gender identity Chittom, par. 6). Children with a single heterosexual parent face the same situation. Even so, some argue children raised in a family with parents of only one sex are more likely to become gay when older. Gay adoption puts children who are already compromised from their experience in the foster care system at even greater risk of trauma (Chittom, par. 1). Pearson maintains there is nothing to support that children being raised in a loving family are harmed in any way by their parents sexual orientation. Pearson believes no child should be denied a home Just because of the exual orientation of the parents wanting to adopt.

Compare and Contrast the Writing Style of Two Stories essays

Compare and Contrast the Writing Style of Two Stories essays The two stories, Soldiers Home by Ernest Hemingway and How to Tell a True War Story by Tim OBrien, have two different writing styles that impact the reader in different ways. The main focus of this essay is to compare and contrast the writing styles of the two stories. Ernest Hemingways Soldiers Home is about a man in conflict with the past and present events in his life. A young man, known as Harold Krebs, struggles to find a balance in the beliefs of his past and present. The images of war shattered many of his past beliefs, so he struggles to find his current beliefs. Krebss parents, like most parents, raised their son with beliefs very close to their own. Krebs went to the war from a Methodist college in Kansas (152) and was previously taught not to cheat, lie, steal, or kill, and was also taught the "Power" of prayer. Krebs was a Marine and was sent over to fight in the First World War. During the war, Krebs put aside most of his beliefs and did as he pleased. Due to the nature of war, he was forced to kill the enemy troops or be killed himself. He watched most of his fellow servicemen die on the battlefield. After the war, Krebs tried to bury the emotional pain he felt through his relationships with various women. All the se attempts failed. He returned home after a few years to his family, where a mother who wanted Krebs to refresh his faith and settle down, a sister who wanted to feel love from her brother, and an unforgiving father who wanted Krebs to support himself. Krebs tries to find his lost faith in God, to tackle his inability to love, and to find his way back into a normal routine. Ernest Hemingway was trying to convey his own self image when he wrote about "Krebs" in his short story, "A Soldier's Home". Through this story, Hemingway tried to shed light on the life of a soldier. Though he was not a soldier hi ...

Marketing Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Marketing Communication - Essay Example Since the JJB leisure clubs are being launched, therefore, to educate the public comparatively detailed print and television advertising would have to be carried out. The purpose of the advertising would be to inform and persuade prospective clients to invest in the services of JJB. TV commercials: a five minute commercial highlighting all the services and concluding on â€Å" JJB will soon be serving members in Ireland†. To economize, in the initial stages, only one international ad will be made that would be run in Ireland as well as UK. TV Documentary: This detailed 15 minute documentary would include everything from the history and formation of JJB to what it is currently and what future plans they have. This documentary proposed to be aired in Ireland before the launch of the outlet in Derry. Likewise, this documentary to be aired on significant channels in the UK before the launch of any more clubs in UK. Print Advertising: One print ad showing multiple views of the various club services, containing the unique selling proposition, the positioning statement and the logo to be developed and released before the launches or before any new services are announced. Direct Mail: Brochures to be designed carrying in depth detail on the various services being offered by the club and sent in direct mail to the respective clients. Data collected from the JJB outlets walk in customers by taking their contact details. In view of the expansion pressures, the JJB’s health and fitness clubs have identified Ireland (Derry) as a potential market for opening outlets. JJB might be a highly recognized sports retail brand in UK but in Ireland, it would have to create its brand awareness. This would serve dual purposes of getting publicity in UK as well as Ireland since it is one of the most high profile events. JJB will reinforce its sports orientation as well as create awareness for

Remote Sensing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Remote Sensing - Assignment Example The assignment "Remote Sensing" talks about the topography maps and what colours are used to describe different areas on this kind of maps. The bright color of the area A on a map shows an area on the earth surface without vegetative cover. Featured area A is possibly a snow-capped area in the landscape. Featured area A may also represent a well that has liquids such as natural gas or body of water. The feature A is visible around mountain areas in a streaming shape that shows the flow in the direction towards low altitude areas. Featured area A reflects light to produce a different color from the area B and C. Assuming Landsat scale resolution of 1800 by 1200, the length of the feature at A is 3 miles. The Bright dots beside B show areas of that do not have vegetation cover. Exposed areas appear brown in the satellite image compared to areas at B that have vegetation cover. Although the bright spots do not appear very similar to feature A, they depict relations. Bright dots are a small representation of feature A. The white color suggests C is an area at the mountaintop; the bright color is because of sunlight reflection. The area at the tip of the mountain has no vegetation. The region consists of bare rocks that reflect back sunlight. The topography of the area is mountainous the altitude rises towards C with region C suggestively mountain top with no vegetation characterized by the bright colors. Towards regions A and B, the altitude falls with regions B representing a flat base of the low altitude region.

Success Seen in ED Study Essay Example for Free

Success Seen in ED Study Essay : The process of learning has become more advanced after the development of the information technology. Students can use technology to study their subjects clearly, so that they can understand it better. The environment of the classroom becomes richer as students access to different types of technologies. Technology can increase the knowledge and achievement of the student. Students can generate impressive results. There are many positive benefits by applying information technology in the education department. Students can do research on several topics and represent information in many forms. Students become independent learners and self starters by using technology in the classrooms. Education technology has shown a tremendous positive effect on the students. Using online telecommunication skills in the classrooms among different regions helps to improve the academic skills of the students as a whole. By using technology in the field of education, student shows more interest in learning, they become motivated towards the subjects. Education technology includes video discs, internet, tele-communication and online education from other parts of the world. â€Å"The most important technologies such as computers, communications systems, internet, and interactive video disc provide an environment in which problem solving can be developed. † Impact of information technology on the society The digital divide is the first step which was considered when reflecting on the social changes coming up with the information technology. There after, it has been held that this information technology is going to produce the differences in the development of society and people. Digital divide is nothing but the gap between people who have effective access to information technology and who do not have the access to it. It’s just the imbalances between the society of people with physical access to technology and also imbalances in the skills needed to have access over the digital and information technology to participate as a digital citizen. Digital divide effects globally also. Global digital divide is the difference between the technology accesses between the countries. There are three types of digital divide – the first is based on the access, which is difference between the society who can access the technology and those who do not have enough access over the technology. The second point is based on the usage that is the difference between the society who know how to use technology efficiently and those who does not have enough skills to use the technology. The third point is based on the usage quality that is the efficient use of the technology among the two groups of societies who has enough access to the technology and who do not have the enough knowledge about the information technology. The scope of digital divide has been changing from time to time. First, digital divide has shown the difference in the connectivity problems. Later, when the technology was developed, it introduced the importance of skills required to use the information technology. In the way, digital divide is changing day by day and the technology is being developed. Digital divide mainly focuses on the infrastructure, capacity building and resource usage. The impact of information technology on the society leads to many technological developments which have an influence on every part of the society. The digital divide has tremendous effect on the society. The prominence of the computers, internet and the other developing technologies had a great consequence on the society. It effects on the age, gender, education and income. In some cases, geographical locations and race also plays an important role. The digital divide helps in restructuring the society as a whole. The digital divide shows more development in the countries and societies which have better access opportunities to the technology. This development differs in different ways, it is based on education, gender, income, geographical locations, race, political, social and cultural conditions. For instance, if we take the age factor, there is usually gap between the generations. Every generation feel the gap in one or the other form like difference in clothing, music, style of living etc. few things are dissimilar among the generations, it is because of the amalgamation of the technology. it was seen in a report that about 8 million Americans use the internet, among those 58% of Americans age 50-64, 75% of 30-49 and 77% of 18-29 year old. In High income countries, with 14% of the world’s population, 79% of the people are using the internet. And in south Asia, which is one-fifth of the world’s population, only 0. 4% are online. Progress should be made in associating the digital divide between the developed and the developing countries. There is a wide and growing information divide between the haves and have-nots, Katz said. Consumerism Consumerism is equating the personal happiness with the purchasing of material possessions and consumption. It is multicultural and non geographical. Online commerce or e-commerce is nothing but buying and selling goods and services through online services such as Internet. A wide variety of work can be done such as electronic funds transfer, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange, etc. through the e-commerce. E-Bay phenomenon is nothing but the transaction between individual to individual (I 2 I). Online auction services like e-Bay help in facilitating these kinds of transactions. Music Industry has also developed a lot due to the advancement of the technology as the cost of equipments has decreased and many new sophisticated instruments have come to the market. Music can be accessed from any part of the World through the Internet or through the Radio and T. V. signals. Development of Information technology has hastened the progress of the world. It is defined as â€Å"the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer- based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware. † With the advancement and progress of the IT sector it has revolutionized the world in a way by increasing the communications between the people of the world; and also having great impact on service sectors like in banking, insurance, transportation, health care, professional and personal services etc. It also facilitates the consumerism, as a person can sale any article or good from sitting at any part of the world to any person located at any other part. The distance barrier is brought down due to this progress in the field of IT and Consumerism. It has tremendous impact on the person’s life as it gives him easier methods to acquire Knowledge, improving the working potential by providing many jobs, as IT has become one the important service sector in many countries. For example, in developed countries like USA it amounts to 74% of GDP.

Young Goodman Brown Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main focus of the story â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† by Nathaniel Hawthorne is the triumph of evil over good. A supposedly good man is tempted by evil and allows himself to be converted into a man of evil. This is much like the situation that arises in Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, where two people are tempted to sin and give in thus submitting themselves to the power of the devil. In this novel, the area where the devil resides is strictly parallel to that in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Goodman Brown sets off on his walk into the forest, he believes that there is more good within his community than evil, and that he himself is a good man. He believes that he will follow his wife to heaven. Yet as he talks with his fellow traveler his thoughts are soon swayed. Goodman Brown talks of his father and grandfather and how they never went into the woods on such an errand as himself, for they were honest men and good Christians. Yet his companion tells him of many a sin his relatives had committed and the walks he had taken with them, therefore proving to Goodman Brown that his father and grandfather before him were not perfectly innocent, good people. Goodman Brown says to his companion that the people of New England are a good people of prayer and abide no wickedness. Again, the traveler returns with comments of the church deacon drinking the communion wine and the town selectmen selling...

Religion vs Ethics

Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics return to religion-online Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the foremost philsophers and theologians of the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuhr was for many years a Professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the author of many classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man and Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was also the founding editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribner's Sons. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. In this classic study, Niebuhr draws a sharp distinction between the moral and social behavior of individuals versus social groups — national, racial, and economic. He shows how this distinction then requires political policies which a purely indi vidualistic ethic will necessarily find embarrassing. IntroductionThe inferiority of the morality of groups to that of individuals is due in part to the difficulty of establishing a rational social force which is powerful enough to cope with the natural impulses by which society achieves its cohesion; but in part it is merely the revelation of a collective egoism, compounded of the egoistic impulses of individuals, which achieve a more vivid expression and a more cumulative effect when they are united in a common impulse than when they express themselves separately and discreetly.Chapter 1: Man and Society: The Art of Living Together History is a long tale of abortive efforts toward the desired end of social cohesion and justice in which failure was usually due either to the effort to eliminate the factor of force entirely or to an undue reliance upon it. Chapter 2: The Rational Resources of the Individual for Social Living The traditions and superstitions, which seemed to the eight eenth century to be the very root of injustice, have been eliminated, without checking the constant growth of social injustice.Yet the men of learning persist in their hope that more intelligence will solve the social problem. They may view present realities quite realistically; but they cling to their hope that an adequate pedagogical technique will finally produce the â€Å"socialised man† and thus solve the problems of society. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (1 of 4) [2/4/03 12:43:52 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Chapter 3: The Religious Resources of the Individual for Social LivingIf the recognition of selfishness is prerequisite to the mitigation of its force and the diminution of its antisocial consequences in society, religion should be a dominant influence in the socialisation of man; for religion is fruitful of the spirit of contrition. Chapter 3: The Religious Resources of the Individual for Social Living I f the recognition of selfishness is prerequisite to the mitigation of its force and the diminution of its antisocial consequences in society, religion should be a dominant influence in the socialisation of man; for religion is fruitful of the spirit of contrition.Chapter 4: The Morality of Nations A discussion of the moral characteristics of a nation and the reasons for the selfishness and hypocrasy found therein. Chapter 4: The Morality of Nations A discussion of the moral characteristics of a nation and the reasons for the selfishness and hypocrasy found therein. Chapter 5: The Ethical Attitudes of Privileged Classes The prejudices, hypocrisies and dishonesties of the privileged and ruling classes is analyzed. The moral attitudes of dominant and privileged groups are characterised by universal selfdeception and hypocrisy.Chapter 5: The Ethical Attitudes of Privileged Classes The prejudices, hypocrisies and dishonesties of the privileged and ruling classes is analyzed. The moral at titudes of dominant and privileged groups are characterised by universal selfdeception and hypocrisy. Chapter 6: The Ethical Attitudes of the Proletarian Class If we analyse the attitudes of the politically self-conscious worker in ethical terms, their most striking characteristic is probably the combination of moral cynicism and unqualified equalitarian social idealism which they betray.The industrial worker has little confidence in the morality of men; but this does not deter him from projecting a rigorous ethical ideal for society. The effect of this development of an industrial civilisation is vividly revealed in the social and political attitudes of the modern proletarian class. These attitudes have achieved their file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (2 of 4) [2/4/03 12:43:52 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics authoritative expression and definition in Marxian political philosophy.Chapter 6: The Ethical Attitudes of the Proletari an Class If we analyse the attitudes of the politically self-conscious worker in ethical terms, their most striking characteristic is probably the combination of moral cynicism and unqualified equalitarian social idealism which they betray. The industrial worker has little confidence in the morality of men; but this does not deter him from projecting a rigorous ethical ideal for society. The effect of this development of an industrial civilisation is vividly revealed in the social and political attitudes of the modern proletarian class.These attitudes have achieved their authoritative expression and definition in Marxian political philosophy. Chapter 7: Justice Through Revolution Difficult as the method of revolution is for any Western industrial civilisation, it must not be regarded as impossible. The forces which make for concentration of wealth and power are operative, even though they do not move as unambiguously as the Marxians prophesied. Chapter 7: Justice Through Revolution Difficult as the method of revolution is for any Western industrial civilisation, it must not be regarded as impossible.The forces which make for concentration of wealth and power are operative, even though they do not move as unambiguously as the Marxians prophesied. Chapter 8: Justice Through Political Force The group, which feels itself defrauded of its just proportion of the common wealth of society, but which has a measure of security and therefore does not feel itself completely disinherited, expresses its political aspirations in a qualified Marxism in which the collectivist goal is shared with the more revolutionary Marxians, but in which parliamentary and evolutionary methods are substituted for revolution as means of achieving the goal.Chapter 8: Justice Through Political Force The group, which feels itself defrauded of its just proportion of the common wealth of society, but which has a measure of security and therefore does not feel itself completely disinherited, expres ses its political aspirations in a qualified Marxism in which the collectivist goal is shared with the more revolutionary Marxians, but in which parliamentary and evolutionary methods are substituted for revolution as means of achieving the goal. Chapter 9: The Preservation of Moral Values in PoliticsIf coercion, self-assertion and conflict are regarded as permissible and necessary instruments of social redemption, how are perpetual conflict and perennial tyranny to be avoided? file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (3 of 4) [2/4/03 12:43:52 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Chapter 9: The Preservation of Moral Values in Politics If coercion, self-assertion and conflict are regarded as permissible and necessary instruments of social redemption, how are perpetual conflict and perennial tyranny to be avoided?Chapter 10: The Conflict Between Individual and Social Morality The conflict between ethics and politics is made inevitable by the double focus of the moral life. One focus is in the inner life of the individual, and the other in the necessities of man's social life. From the perspective of society the highest moral ideal is justice. From the perspective of the individual the highest ideal is unselfishness. 31 file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&id=415. htm (4 of 4) [2/4/03 12:43:52 PM] Religion-Online religion-online. orgFull texts by recognized religious scholars More than 1,500 articles and chapters. Topics include Old and New Testament, Theology, Ethics, History and Sociology of Religions, Comparative Religion, Religious Communication, Pastoral Care, Counselling, Homiletics, Worship, Missions and Religious Education. site map (click on any subject) THE SITE THE BIBLE About Religion Online Copyright and Use A Note to Professors THEOLOGY Authority of the Bible Theology Old Testament Ethics New Testament Missions Comparative Religion Bible Commentary Religion and CultureHistory of Religious Thought R ELIGION & COMMUNICATION Communication Theory Communication in the Local Church Communication and Public Policy Media Education THE LOCAL CHURCH The Local Congregation Pastoral Care and Counseling Homiletics: The Art of Preaching Religious Education SEARCH Search Religion Online Church and Society Sociology of Religion Social Issues BROWSE Books Index By Author Index By Recommended Sites Category A member of the Science and Theology Web Ring [ Previous | Next | Random Site | List Sites ] file:///D:/rb/index. htm [2/4/03 12:43:55 PM]RELIGION & SOCIETY Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics return to religion-online Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the foremost philsophers and theologians of the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuhr was for many years a Professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the author of many classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man an d Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was also the founding editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribner's Sons. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. Introduction The thesis to be elaborated in these pages is that a sharp distinction must be drawn between the moral and social behavior of individuals and of social groups, national, racial, and economic; and that this distinction justifies and necessitates political policies which a purely individualistic ethic must always find embarrassing.The title â€Å"Moral Man and Immoral Society† suggests the intended distinction too unqualifiedly, but it is nevertheless a fair indication of the argument to which the following pages are devoted. Individual men may be moral in the sense that they are able to consider interests other than their own in determining problems of conduct, and a re capable, on occasion, of preferring the advantages of others to their own. They are endowed by nature with a measure of sympathy and consideration for their kind, the breadth of which may be extended by an astute social pedagogy.Their rational faculty prompts them to a sense of justice which educational discipline may refine and purge of egoistic elements until they are able to view a social situation, in which their own interests are involved, with a fair measure of objectivity. But all these achievements are more difficult, if not impossible, for human societies and social groups. In every human group there is less reason to guide and to check impulse, less capacity for self-transcendence, less ability to comprehend the needs of others and therefore more unrestrained egoism than the individuals, who compose the group, reveal in their personal relationships.The inferiority of the morality of groups to that of individuals is due in part to the difficulty of establishing a rationa l social force which is powerful enough to cope with the natural impulses by which society achieves its cohesion; but in part it is merely the revelation of a collective egoism, compounded of the egoistic impulses of individuals, which achieve a more vivid expression and a more cumulative effect when they are united in a common impulse than when they express themselves separately and discreetly. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem=1=415. htm (1 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Inasfar as this treatise has a polemic interest it is directed against the moralists both religious and secular, who imagine that the egoism of individuals is being progressively checked by the development of rationality or the growth of a religiously inspired goodwill and that nothing but the continuance of this process is necessary to establish social harmony between all the human societies and collectives.Social analyses and prophecies made by moralists, sociologists and educators upon the basis of these assumptions lead to a very considerable moral and political confusion in our day. They completely disregard the political necessities in the struggle for justice in human society by failing to recognise those elements in man's collective behavior which belong to the order of nature and can never be brought completely under the dominion of reason or conscience. They do not recognise that when collective power, whether in the form of imperialism or class domination, exploits weakness, it can never be dislodged unless power is raised against it.If conscience and reason can be insinuated into the resulting struggle they can only qualify but not abolish it. The most persistent error of modern educators and moralists is the assumption that our social difficulties are due to the failure of the social sciences to keep pace with the physical sciences which have created our technological civilisation. The invariable implication of this assumption is that, with a little more time, a little more adequate moral and social pedagogy and a generally higher development of human intelligence, our social problems will approach solution. It is,† declares Professor John Dewey, â€Å"our human intelligence and our human courage which is on trial; it is incredible that men who have brought the technique of physical discovery, invention and use to such a pitch of perfection will abdicate in the face of the infinitely more important human problem. What stands in the way (of a planned economy) is a lot of outworn traditions, moth-eaten slogans and catchwords that do substitute duty for thought, as well as our entrenched predatory self-interest. We shall only make a real beginning in intelligent thought when we cease mouthing platitudes†¦.Just as soon as we begin to use the knowledge and skills we have, to control social consequences in the interest of a shared, abundant and secured life, we shall cease to compla in of the backwardness of our social knowledge†¦. We shall then take the road which leads to the assured building up of social science just as men built up physical science when they actively used techniques and tools and numbers in physical experimentation. †(John Dewey, Philosophy and Civilization [New York: Minton, Balch], p. 329. In spite of Professor Dewey's great interest in and understanding of the modern social problem there is very little clarity in this statement. The real cause of social inertia, â€Å"our predatory self-interest,† is mentioned only in passing without influencing his reasoning, and with no indication that he understands how much social conservatism is due to the economic interests of the owning classes. On the whole, social conservatism is ascribed to ignorance, a viewpoint which states only part of the truth and reveals the natural bias of the educator.The suggestion that we will only make a beginning in intelligent thought when we â₠¬Å"cease mouthing platitudes,† is itself so platitudinous that it rather betrays the confusion of an analyst who has no clear counsels about the way to overcome social inertia. The idea that we cannot be socially intelligent until we begin experimentation in social problems in the way that the physical scientists experimented fails to take account of an important difference between the physical file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=1=415. tm (2 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics and the social sciences. The physical sciences gained their freedom when they overcame the traditionalism based on ignorance, but the traditionalism which the social sciences face is based upon the economic interest of the dominant social classes who are trying to maintain their special privileges in society. Nor can the difference between the very character of social and physical sciences be overlooked.Complete rational objectivity in a soc ial situation is impossible. The very social scientists who are so anxious to offer our generation counsels of salvation and are disappointed that an ignorant and slothful people are so slow to accept their wisdom, betray middle-class prejudices in almost everything they write. Since reason is always, to some degree, the servant of interest in a social situation, social injustice cannot be resolved by moral and rational suasion alone, as the educator and social scientist usually believes.Conflict is inevitable, and in this conflict power must be challenged by power. That fact is not recognized by most of the educators, and only very grudgingly admitted by most of the social scientists. If social conflict be a part of the process of gaining social justice, the idea of most of Professor Newey's disciples that our salvation depends upon the development of â€Å"experimental procedures? â€Å"( Cf. inter alia, John Childs, Education and the Philosophy of Experimentalism, p. 37. in soc ial life, commensurate with the experimentalism of the physical sciences, does not have quite the plausibility which they attribute to it. Contending factions in a social struggle require morale; and morale is created by the right dogmas, symbols and emotionally potent oversimplifications. These are at least as necessary as the scientific spirit of tentativity. No class of industrial workers will ever win freedom from the dominant classes if they give themselves completely to the â€Å"experimental techniques† of the modern educators.They will have to believe rather more firmly in the justice and in the probable triumph of their cause, than any impartial science would give them the right to believe, if they are to have enough energy to contest the power of the strong. They may be very scientific in projecting their social goal and in choosing the most effective instruments for its attainment, but a motive force will be required to nerve them for their task which is not easily derived from the cool objectivity of science. Modern educators are, like rationalists of all the ages, too enamored of the function of reason in life.The world of history, particularly in man's collective behavior, will never be conquered by reason, unless reason uses tools, and is itself driven by forces which are not rational. The sociologists as a class, understand the modern social problem even less than the educators. They usually interpret social conflict as the result of a clash between different kinds of â€Å"behavior patterns,† which can be eliminated if the contending parties will only allow the social scientist to furnish them with a new and more perfect pattern which will do justice to the needs of both parties.With the educators they regard ignorance rather than self-interest as the cause of conflict. â€Å"Apparently,† declares Kimball Young, â€Å"the only way in which collective conflicts, as well as individual conflicts, can be successfully and hygi enically solved is by securing a redirection of behavior toward a more feasible environmental objective. This can be accomplished most successfully by the rational reconditioning of attitudes on a higher neuropsychic or intellectual symbolic plane to the facts of science, preferably through a free file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (3 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics discussion with a minimum of propaganda. This is not an easy road to mental and social sanity but it appears to be the only one which arrives at the goal. â€Å"( Kimball Young, Social Attitudes p. 72) Here a technique which works very well in individual relations, and in certain types of social conflict due to differences in culture, is made a general panacea. How is it to solve the problem between England and India?Through the Round-Table Conference? But how much would England have granted India at the conference if a non-co-o peration campaign, a type of conflict, had not forced the issue? A favorite counsel of the social scientists is that of accommodation. If two parties are in a conflict, let them, by conferring together, moderate their demands and arrive at a modus vivendi. This is, among others, the advice of Professor Hornell Hart. (Hornell Hart, The Science of Social Relations. ) Undoubtedly there are innumerable conflicts which must be resolved in this fashion.But will a disinherited group, such as the Negroes for instance, ever win full justice in society in this fashion? Will not even its most minimum demands seem exorbitant to the dominant whites, among whom only a very small minority will regard the inter-racial problem from the perspective of objective justice? Or how are the industrial workers to follow Professor Hart's advice in dealing with industrial owners, when the owners possess so much power that they can win the debate with the workers, no matter how unconvincing their arguments ?On ly a very few sociologists seem to have learned that an adjustment of a social conflict, caused by the disproportion of power in society, will hardly result in justice as long as the disproportion of power remains. Sometimes the sociologists are so completely oblivious to the real facts of an industrial civilisation that, as Floyd Allport for instance, they can suggest that the unrest of industrial workers is due not to economic injustice but to a sense of inferiority which will be overcome just as soon as benevolent social psychologists are able to teach the workers that â€Å"no one is charging them with inferiority except themselves. ( FIoyd Allport, Social Psychology, pp. 14-17. ) These omniscient social scientists will also teach the owners that â€Å"interests and profits must be tempered by regard for the worker. † Thus â€Å"the socialisation of individual control† in industry will obviate the necessity of â€Å"socialistic control. † Most of the social scientists are such unqualified rationalists that they seem to imagine that men of power will immediately check their exactions and pretensions in society, as soon as they have been apprised by the social scientists that their actions and attitudes are anti-social.Professor Clarence Marsh Case, in an excellent analysis of the social problem, places his confidence in a â€Å"reorganisation of values†in which, among other things, industrial leaders must be made to see â€Å"that despotically controlled industry in a society that professes democracy as an article of faith is an anachronism that cannot endure. â€Å"( Clarence Marsh Case, Social Process and Human Progress, p. 233. ) It may be that despotism cannot endure but it will not abdicate merely because the despots have discovered it to be anachronistic.Sir Arthur Salter, to name a brilliant economist among the social scientists, finishes his penetrating analysis of the distempers of our civilisation by expressing the u sual hope that a higher intelligence or a sincerer morality will prevent the governments of the future from perpetrating the mistakes of the past. His own analysis proves conclu-sively that the failure of governments is due to the pressure of economic interest upon them rather than to the â€Å"limited capacities of uman wisdom. † In his own words file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (4 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics â€Å"government is failing above all because it has become enmeshed in the task of giving discretionary, particularly preferential, privileges to competitive industry. † (Sir Arthur Salter, Recovery, p. 41) In spite of this analysis Sir Arthur expects the governments to redeem our civilisation by becoming more socially minded and he thinks that one method which will help them to do so is to â€Å"draw into the service of the public the great private institutions which represent the organised activities of the country, chambers of commerce, banking institutions, industrial and labor organisations. † His entire hope for recovery rests upon the possibility of developing a degree of economic disinterestedness among men of power which the entire history of mankind proves them incapable of acquiring.It is rather discouraging to find such naive confidence in the moral capacities of collective man, among men who make it their business to study collective human behavior. Even when, as Professor Howard Odum, they are prepared to admit that â€Å"conflict will be necessary† as long as unfairness in the distribution of the rewards of labor exists,† they put their hope in the future. They regard social conflict as only an expedient of the moment â€Å"until broader principles of education and cooperation can be established. † (Howard W.Odum, Man's Quest for Social Guidance, p. 477. ) Anarchism, with an uncoerced and voluntary j ustice, seems to be either an explicit or implicit social goal of every second social scientist. Modern religious idealists usually follow in the wake of social scientists in advocating compromise and accommodation as the way to social justice. Many leaders of the church like to insist that it is not their business to champion the cause of either labor or capital, but only to admonish both sides to a spirit of fairness and accommodation. Between the far-visioned capitalism of Owen Young and the hard-headed socialism of Ramsay MacDonald,† declares Doctor Justin Wroe Nixon, â€Å"there is probably no impassable gulf. The progress of mankind . . . depends upon following the MacDonalds and Youngs into those areas. † (Justin Wroe Nixon, An Emerging Christian Faith p. 294) Unfortunately, since those lines were written the socialism of MacDonald has been revealed as not particularly hard-headed, and the depression has shown how little difference there really is between Mr.Youn g's â€Å"new capitalism† and the older and less suave types of capitalism. What is lacking among all these moralists, whether re1igious or rational, is an understanding of the brutal character of the behavior of all human collectives, and the power of self-interest and collective egoism in all intergroup relations. Failure to recognise the stubborn resistance of group egoism to all moral and inclusive social objectives inevitably involves them in unrealistic and confused political thought.They regard social conflict either as an impossible method of achieving morally ap- proved ends or as a momentary expedient which a more perfect education or a purer religion will make unnecessary. They do not see that the limitations of the human imagination, the easy subservience of reason to prejudice and passion, and the consequent persistence of irrational egoism, particularly in group behavior, make social conflict an inevitability in human history, probably to its very end. The roman tic overestimate of human virtue and moral capacity, current in our modern middlefile:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (5 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics class culture, does not always result in an unrealistic appraisal of present social facts. Contemporary social situations are frequently appraised quite realistically, but the hope is expressed that a new pedagogy or a revival of religion will make conflict unnecessary in the future. Nevertheless a considerable portion of middle-class culture remains quite unrealistic in its analysis of the contemporary situation.It assumes that evidences of a growing brotherliness between classes and nations are apparent in the present moment. It gives such arrangements as the League of Nations, such ventures as the Kellogg Pact and such schemes as company industrial unions, a connotation of moral and social achievement which the total facts completely belie. â€Å"There must,† declares Professor George Stratton, a social psychologist, â€Å"always be a continuing and widening progress. But our present time seems to promise distinctly the close of an old epoch in world relations and the opening of a new†¦.Under the solemn teaching of the War, most of the nations have made political commitments which are of signal promise for international discipline and for still further and more effective governmental acts. †(George M. Stratton, Social Psychology and International Conduct, pp. 355-361. ) This glorification of the League of Nations as a symbol of a new epoch in international relations has been very general, and frequently very unqualified, in the Christian churches, where liberal Christianity has given itself to the illusion that all social relations are being brought progressively under â€Å"the law of Christ. William Adams Brown speaks for the whole liberal Christian viewpoint when he declares: â€Å"From many di fferent centres and in many different forms the crusade for a unified and brotherly society is being carried on. The ideal of the League of Nations in which all civilised people shall be represented and in which they shall cooperate with one another in fighting common enemies like war and disease is winning recognition in circles which have hitherto been little suspected of idealism. . . In relations between races, in strife between capital and labor, in our attitudes toward the weaker and more dependent members of society we are developing a social conscience, and situations which would have been accepted a generation ago as a matter of course are felt as an intolerable scandal. †(William Adams Brown, Pathways to Certainty, p. 246. ) Another theologian and pastor, Justin Wroe Nixon, thinks that â€Å"another reason for believing in the growth of social statesmanship on the part of business leaders is based upon their experience as trustees in various philanthropic and educat ional enterprises. ‘ (Justin Wroe Nixon, An Emerging Christian Faith, p. 291) This judgment reveals the moral confusion of liberal Christianity with perfect clarity. Teachers of morals who do not see the difference between the problem of charity within the limits of an accepted social system and the problem of justice between economic groups, holding uneven power within modern industrial society, have simply not faced the most obvious differences between the morals of groups and those of individuals. The suggestion that the fight against disease is in the same category with the fight against war reveals the same confusion.Our contemporary culture fails to realise the power, extent and persistence of group egoism in human relations. It may be possible, though it is never easy, to establish just relations between individuals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation. In intergroup relations this is practically an impossibility. The relations between g roups must therefore always be predominantly political rather than ethical, that is, they will be determined by the proportion of power which each group possesses at least as much as by any rational and moral appraisal of the comparative needs and claims of each group.The coercive factors, in file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (6 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics distinction to the more purely moral and rational factors, in political relations can never be sharply differentiated and defined. It is not possible to estimate exactly how much a party to a social conflict is influenced by a rational argument or by the threat of force.It is impossible, for instance, to know what proportion of a privileged class accepts higher inheritance taxes because it believes that such taxes are good social policy and what proportion submits merely because the power of the state supports the taxation policy. Si nce political conflict, at least in times when controversies have not reached the point of crisis, is carried on by the threat, rather than the actual use, of force, it is always easy for the casual or superficial observer to overestimate the moral and rational factors, and to remain oblivious to the covert types of coercion and force which are used in the conflict.Whatever increase in social intelligence and moral goodwill may be achieved in human history, may serve to mitigate the brutalities of social conflict, but they cannot abolish the conflict itself. That could be accomplished only if human groups, whether racial, national or economic, could achieve a degree of reason and sympathy which would permit them to see and to understand the interests of others as vividly as they understand their own, and a moral goodwill which would prompt them to affirm the rights of others as vigorously as they affirm their own.Given the inevitable limitations of human nature and the limits of the human imagination and intelligence, this is an ideal which individuals may approximate but which is beyond the capacities of human societies. Educators who emphasise the pliability of human nature, social and psychological scientists who dream of â€Å"socialising† man and religious idealists who strive to increase the sense of moral responsibility, can serve a very useful function in society in humanising individuals within an established social system and in purging the relations of individuals of as much egoism as possible.In dealing with the problems and necessities of radical social change they are almost invariably confusing in their counsels because they are not conscious of the limitations in human nature which finally frustrate their efforts. The following pages are devoted to the task of analysing the moral resources and limitations of human nature, of tracing their consequences and cumulative effect in the life of human groups and of weighing political strategies in the light of the ascertained facts. The ultimate purpose of this task is to find political methods which will offer the most promise of achieving an ethical social goal for society.Such methods must always be judged by two criteria: 1. Do they do justice to the moral resources and possibilities in human nature and provide for the exploitation of every latent moral capacity in man? 2. Do they take account of the limitations of human nature, particularly those which manifest themselves in man's collective behavior? So persistent are the moralistic illusions about politics in the middle-class world, that any emphasis upon the second question will probably impress the average reader as unduly cynical. Social viewpoints and analyses are relative to the temper of the age which gives them birth.In America our contemporary culture is still pretty firmly enmeshed in the illusions and sentimentalities of the Age of Reason. A social analysis which is written, at least partially, from the pe rspective of a disillusioned generation will seem to be almost pure cynicism from the perspective of those who will stand in the credo of the ninteenth century. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (7 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics 0 file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. tm (8 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics return to religion-online Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the foremost philsophers and theologians of the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuhr was for many years a Professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the author of many classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man and Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was also the fou nding editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribner's Sons. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. Chapter 1: Man and Society: The Art of Living Together Though human society has roots which lie deeper in history than the beginning of human life, men have made comparatively but little progress in solving the problem of their aggregate existence. Each century originates a new complexity and each new generation faces a new vexation in it. For all the enturies of experience, men have not yet learned how to live together without compounding their vices and covering each other â€Å"with mud and with blood. † The society in which each man lives is at once the basis for, and the nemesis of, that fullness of life which each man seeks. However much human ingenuity may increase the treasures which nature provides for the satisfaction of human needs, they can never be sufficient to satisfy all human wants; for man, unlike other creatures, is gifted and cursed with an imagination which extends his appetites beyond the requirements of subsistence.Human society will never escape the problem of the equitable distribution of the physical and cultural goods which provide for the preservation and fulfillment of human life. Unfortunately the conquest of nature, and the consequent increase in nature's beneficences to man, have not eased, but rather accentuated, the problem of justice. The same technology, which drew the fangs of nature's enmity of man, also created a society in which the intensity and extent of social cohesion has been greatly increased, and in which power is so unevenly distributed, that justice has become a more difficult achievement.Perhaps it is man's sorry fate, suffering from ills which have their source in the inadequacies of both nature and human society, that the tools by which he eliminates the former should become the means of increasing the latter. That, at least, has been his fate up to the present hour; and it may be that there will be no salvation for the human spirit from the more and more painful burdens of social injustice until the ominous tendency in human history has resulted in perfect tragedy. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (1 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Human nature is not wanting in certain endowments for the solution of the problem of human society. Man is endowed by nature with organic relations to his fellowmen; and natural impulse prompts him to consider the needs of others even when they compete with his own. With the higher mammals man shares concern for his offspring; and the long infancy of the child created he basis for an organic social group in the earliest period of human history. Gradually intelligence, imagination, and the necessities of social conflict increased the size of this group. Natural impulse was refined and e xtended until a less obvious type of consanguinity than an immediate family relationship could be made the basis of social solidarity. Since those early days the units of human cooperation have constantly grown in size, and the areas of significant relationships between the units have likewise increased.Nevertheless conflict between the national units remains as a permanent rather than a passing characteristic of their relations to each other; and each national unit finds it increasingly difficult to maintain either peace or justice within its common life. While it is possible for intelligence to increase the range of benevolent impulse, and thus prompt a human being to consider the needs and rights of other than those to whom he is bound by organic and physical relationship, there are definite limits in the capacity of ordinary mortals which makes it impossible for them to grant to others what they claim for themselves.Though educators ever since the eighteenth century have given t hemselves to the fond illusion that justice through voluntary co-operation waited only upon a more universal or a more adequate educational enterprise, there is good reason to believe that the sentiments of benevolence and social goodwill will never be so pure or powerful, and the rational capacity to consider the rights and needs of others in fair competition with our own will never be so fully developed as to create the possibility for the anarchistic millennium which is the social utopia, either explicit or implicit, of all intellectual or religious moralists.All social co-operation on a larger scale than the most intimate social group requires a measure of coercion. While no state can maintain its unity purely by coercion neither can it preserve itself without coercion. Where the factor of mutual consent is strongly developed, and where standardised and approximately fair methods of adjudicating and resolving conflicting interests within an organised group have been established, the coercive factor in social life is frequently covert, and becomes apparent only in moments of crisis and in the group's policy toward recalcitrant individuals.Yet it is never absent. Divergence of interest, based upon geographic and functional differences within a society, is bound to create different social philosophies and political attitudes which goodwill and intelligence may partly, but never completely, harmonise. Ultimately, unity within an organised social group, or within a federation of such groups, is created by the ability of a dominant group to impose its will.Politics will to the end of history,be an area where conscience and power meet, where the ethical and coercive factors of human life will interpenetrate and work out their tentative and uneasy compromises. The democratic method of resolving social conflict, which some romanticists hail as a triumph of the ethical over the coercive factor, is really much more coercive than at first seems apparent. file:///D:/rb /relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (2 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and PoliticsThe majority has its way, not because the minority believes that the majority is right (few minorities are willing to grant the majority the moral prestige of such a concession), but because the votes of the majority are a symbol of its social strength. Whenever a minority believes that it has some strategic advantage which outweighs the power of numbers, and whenever it is sufficiently intent upon its ends, or desperate enough about its position in society, it refuses to accept the dictates of the majority.Military and economic overlords and revolutionary zealots have been traditionally contemptuous of the will of majorities. Recently Trotsky advised the German communists not to be dismayed by the greater voting strength of the fascists since in the inevitable revolution the power of industrial workers, in charge of the nation's indu strial process, would be found much more significant than the social power of clerks and other petty bourgeoisie who comprised the fascist movement. There are, no doubt, rational and ethical factors in the democratic process.Contending social forces presumably use the forum rather than the battleground to arbitrate their differences in the democratic method, and thus differences are resolved by moral suasion and a rational adjustment of rights to rights. If political issues were really abstract questions of social policy upon which unbiased citizens were asked to commit themselves, the business of voting and the debate which precedes the election might actually be regarded as an educational programme in which a social group discovers its common mind.But the fact is that political opinions are inevitably rooted in economic interests of some kind or other, and only comparatively few citizens can view a problem of social policy without regard to their interest. Conflicting interests th erefore can never be completely resolved; and minorities will yield only because the majority has come into control of the police power of the state and may, if the occasion arises, augment that power by its own military strength.Should a minority regard its own strength, whether economic or martial, as strong enough to challenge the ,power of the majority, it may attempt to wrest control of the state apparatus from the majority, as in the case of the fascist movement in Italy. Sometimes it will resort to armed conflict, even if the prospects of victory are none too bright, as in the instance of the American Civil War, in which the Southern planting interests, outvoted by a combination of Eastern industrialists and Western agrarians, resolved to protect their peculiar interests and privileges by a forceful dissolution of the national union.The coercive factor is, in other words, always present in politics. If economic interests do not conflict too sharply, if the spirit of accommoda tion partially resolves them, and if the democratic process has achieved moral prestige and historic dignity, the coercive factor in politics may become too covert to be visible to the casual observer. Nevertheless, only a romanticist of the purest water could maintain that a national group ever arrives at a â€Å"common mind† or becomes conscious of a â€Å"general will† without the use of either force or the threat of force.This is particularly true of nations, but it is also true, though in a slighter degree, of other social groups. Even religious communities, if they are sufficiently large, and if they deal with issues regarded as vital by their members, resort to coercion to preserve their unity. Religious organisations have usually availed themselves of a covert type of coercion (excommunication and the interdict) or they have called upon the police power of the state. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (3 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44 :05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and PoliticsThe limitations of the human mind and imagination, the inability of human beings to transcend their own interests sufficiently to envisage the interests of their fellowmen as clearly as they do their own makes force an inevitable part of the process of social cohesion. But the same force which guarantees peace also makes for injustice. â€Å"Power,† said Henry Adams, â€Å"is poison†; and it is a poison which blinds the eyes of moral insight and lames the will of moral purpose. The individual or the group which organises any society, however social its intentions or pretensions, arrogates an inordinate portion of social privilege to itself.The two most obvious types of power are the military and the economic, though in primitive society the power of the priest, partly because he dispenses supernatural benefits and partly because he establishes public order by methods less arduous than those of the sol dier, vies with that of the soldier and the landlord. The chief difference between the agrarian civilisations, which lasted from the rise of ancient Babylon and Egypt to the fall of European feudalism, and the commercial and industrial civilisations of today is that in the former the military power is primary, and in the latter it has become secondary, to economic power.In agrarian civilisations the soldier becomes the landlord. In more primitive periods he may claim the land by his own military prowess. In later periods a grateful sovereign bestowed land upon the soldiers who defended his realm and consolidated his dominion. The soldier thus gained the economic security and the social prestige which could be exploited in further martial service to his sovereign. The business man and industrial overlord are gradually usurping the position of eminence and privilege once held by the soldier and the priest.In most European nations their ascendancy over the landed aristocrat of military traditions is not as complete as in America, which has no feudal traditions. In present-day Japan the military caste is still so powerful that it threatens to destroy the rising power of the commercial groups. On the pre-eminence of economic power in an industrial civilisation and its ability to make the military power its tool we shall have more to say later. Our interest at the moment is to record that any kind of significant social power develops social inequality.Even if history is viewed from other than equalitarian perspectives, and it is granted that differentials in economic rewards are morally justified and socially useful, it is impossible to justify the degree of inequality which complex societies inevitably create by the increased centralisation of power which develops with more elaborate civilisations. The literature of all ages is filled with rational and moral justifications of these inequalities, but most of them are specious. If superior abilities and services to s ociety deserve special rewards it may be regarded as axiomatic that the rewards are always higher than the services warrant.No impartial society determines the rewards. The men of power who control society grant these perquisites to themselves. Whenever special ability is not associated with power, as in the case of the modern professional man, his excess of income over the average is ridiculously low in comparison with that of the economic overlords, who are the real centres of power in an industrial society. Most rational and social justifications of unequal privilege are clearly afterthoughts. The facts are created by the disproportion of power which exists in a given social system.The justifications are usually dictated by the desire of the men of power to hide the nakedness of their greed, and by the inclination of society itself to veil the brutal facts of human life from itself. This is a rather pathetic but understandable inclination; since the facts of man's collective life easily rob the average individual of confidence in the human enterprise. The inevitable hypocrisy, which is associated with all of the |collective activities of the human race, springs chiefly from this file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (4 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics source: that individuals have a moral code which makes the actions of collective man an outrage to their conscience. They therefore invent romantic and moral interpretations of the real facts, preferring to obscure rather than reveal the true character of their collective behavior Sometimes they are as anxious to offer moral justifications for the brutalities from which they suffer as for those which they commit.The fact that the hypocrisy of man's group behavior, about which we shall have much more to say later, expresses itself not only in terms of selfjustification but in terms of moral justification of human behavior in general, symbolises one of the tragedies of the human spirit: its inability to conform its collective life to its individual ideals. As individuals, men believe that they ought to love and serve each other and establish justice between each other. As racial, economic and national groups they take for themselves, whatever their power can command.The disproportion of power in a complex society which began with the transmutation of the pastoral to the agrarian economy, and which destroyed the simple equalitarianism and communism of the hunting and nomadic social organisation, has perpetuated social injustice in every form through all the ages. Types of power have changed, and gradations of social inequality have varied, but the essential facts have remained unchanged. In Egypt the land was divided into three parts, respectively claimed by the king, the soldiers and the priests. The common people were landless.In Peru, where a rather remarkable despotic communism developed, the king owned all the land but gave the use of one third to the people, another third to the priests and kept one third for himself and his nobles. Needless to say, the commoners were expected to till not only their third but the other two thirds of the lands. In China, where the emperor maintained the right of eminent domain for many centuries, defeating the experiment in feudalism in the third century A. D. , and giving each family inalienable rights in the soil which nominally belonged to him, there has probably been less inequality than in any other ancient empire.Nevertheless slavery persisted until a very recent day. In Japan the emperor gave the land to feudal princes, who again sublet it to the inferior nobility. The power of the feudal clans, originating in martial prowess and perpetuated through land ownership, has remained practically unbroken to this day, though the imperial power was ostensibly restored in the latter part of the last century, and growing industry has developed a class of industrial overlords who were partly drawn from the landed aristocracy.In Rome the absolute property rights of the pater familias of the patrician class gave him power which placed him on top of the social pyramid. All other classes, beginning with his own women and children, then the plebeians and finally the slaves, took their places in the various lower rungs of the social ladder. The efforts of the Gracchi to destroy the ever growing inequality, which resulted from power breeding more power, proved abortive, as did the land reforms of Solon and Lycurgus in Greece.Military conquest gave the owners of the Roman latifundia hundreds of slaves by the labor of which they reduced the small freeholders to penury. Thus the decay of the Roman Empire was prepared; for a state which has only lords and slaves lacks the social cement to preserve it from internal disintegration and the military force to protect it from external aggression. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showit em&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (5 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM]Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics All through history one may observe the tendency of power to destroy its very raison d'etre. It is suffered because it achieves internal unity and creates external defenses for the nation. But it grows to such proportions that it destroys the social peace of the state by the animosities which its exactions arouse, and it enervates the sentiment of patriotism by robbing the common man of the basic privileges which might bind him to his nation.The words attributed by Plutarch to Tiberius Gracchus reveal the hollowness of the pretensions by which the powerful classes enlist their slaves in the defense of their dominions: â€Å"The wild beasts in Italy had at least their lairs, dens and caves whereto they might retreat; whereas the men who fought and died for that land had nothing in it save air and light, but were forced to wander to and fro with their wives and chi ldren, without resting place or house wherein they might lodge†¦. The poor folk go to war, to fight and to die for the delights, riches and superfluities of others. Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, see â€Å"Tiberius Gracchus,† Loeb Classical Library, Vol. X). † In the long run these pretensions are revealed and the sentiment of patriotism is throttled in the breasts of the disinherited. The privileged groups who are outraged by the want of patriotism among modern proletarians could learn the cause of proletarian internationalism by a little study of history. â€Å"It is absurd,† says Diodorus Siculus, speaking of Egypt, â€Å"to entrust the defence of a country to people who own nothing in it,†(Quoted by C. J. M. Letourneau, Property; Its Origin and Development. p. 77) a reflection which has applicability to other ages and other nations than his own. Russian communists of pure water pour their scorn upon European socialists, among whom patriotism outwei ghed class loyalty in the World War. But there is a very simple explanation for the nationalism of European socialists. They were not as completely, or at least not as obviously, disinherited as their Russian comrades. The history of slavery in all ancient civilisations offers an interesting illustration of the development of social injustice with the growing size and complexity of the social unit.In primitive tribal organisation rights are essentially equal within the group, and no rights, or only very minimum rights are recognised outside of the group. The captives of war are killed. With the growth of agriculture the labor of captives becomes useful, and they are enslaved rather than destroyed. Since rightless individuals are introduced into the intimate life of the group, equality of rights disappears; and the inequality remains even after the slaves are no longer regarded as enemies and have become completely organic to the life of the group.The principle of slavery once establ ished, is enlarged to include debt slaves, victims of the growing property system. The membership of the debt slaves in the original community at first guarantees them rights which the captive slaves do not enjoy. But the years gradually wipe out these distinctions and the captive slaves are finally raised to the status of debtor slaves. Thus the more humane attitudes which men practice within their social groups gains a slight victory over the more brutal attitudes towards individuals in other groups.But the victory is insignificant in comparison with the previous introduction of the morals of inter group relations into the intimate life of the group by the very establishment of slavery. Barbarism knows little or nothing of class distinctions. These are created and more and more highly elaborated by civilisation. The social impulses, with which men are endowed by nature are not powerful enough, even when they are extended by a growing intelligence, to apply with equal force ile:/// D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=2=415. htm (6 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics toward all members of a large community. The distinction between slave and freeman is only one of the many social gradations which higher societies develop. They are determined in every case by the disproportion of power, military and economic, which develops in the more complex civilisations and in the larger social units.A growing social intelligence may be affronted by them and may protest against them, but it changes them only slightly. Neither the prophets of Israel nor the social idealists of Egypt and Babylon, who protested against social injustice, could make their vision of a just society effective. The man of power, though humane impulse may awaken in him, always remains something of the beast of prey. He may be generous within his family, and just within the confines of the group which shares his power and privilege.With only rare e xceptions, his highest moral attitude toward members of other groups is one of warlike sportsmanship toward those who equal his power and challenge it, and one of philanthropic generosity toward those who possess less power and privilege. His philanthropy is a perfect illustration of the curious compound of the brutal and the moral which we find in all human behavior; for his generosity is at once a display of his power and an expression of his pity. His generous impulses freeze within him if his power is challenged or his generosities are accepted without grateful humility.If individual men of power should achieve more ethical attitudes than the one described, it remains nevertheless typical for them as a class; and is their practically unvarying attitude when they express themselves not as individuals but as a group. The rise of modern democracy, beginning with the Eighteenth Century, is sometimes supposed to have substituted the consent of the governed for the power of royal fami lies and aristocratic classes as the cohesive force of national society. This judgment is partly true but not nearly as true as the uncritical devotees of modern democracy assume.The doctrine that government exists by the consent of the governed, and the democratic technique by which the suffrage of the governed determines the policy of the state, may actually reduce the coercive factor in national life, and provide for peaceful and gradual methods of resolving conflicting social interests and changing political institutions. But the creeds and institutions of democracy have never become fully divorced from the special interests of the commercial classes who conceived and developed them.It was their interest to destroy political restraint upon economic activity, and they therefore weakened the authority of the state and made it more pliant to their needs. With the increased centralisation of economic power in the period of modern industrialism, this development merely means that soc iety as such does not control economic power as much as social well-being requires; and that the economic, rather than the political and military, power has become the significant coercive force of modern society. Either it defies the authority of the state or it bends the institutions of the state to its own purposes.Political power has been made responsible, but economic power has become irresponsible in society. The net result is that political power has been made more responsible to economic power. It is, in other words, again the man of power or the dominant class which binds society together, regulates its processes, always paying itself inordinate rewards for its labors. The difference is that